Flying the Lear 45

The Lear 45 is a light business jet that first flew in 1995. A follow-up to the popular Lear 35 series, the Lear 45 was the first airplane produced after Bombardier purchased Learjet in 1990. At corporate airports around the country and all over the world, the Lear 45 is a common sight.

The Lear 45 is a capable performer. Normally configured, it can seat eight passengers plus two pilots. A belted lav seat can bring the total passenger count to nine. Red line speed is 330 knots or .81 mach. Service ceiling is 51,000 feet.

Sitting on the ramp, the Lear 45 looks fast. Standout features are the large, tinted windscreen, swept wings and turned up winglets. The airplane sits low to the ground, which makes loading passengers and bags easy.

Early 45s configured with –AR engines are somewhat limited when it comes to hot and high operations from short fields. One summer flight from Albuquerque (KABQ) with temperatures approaching 80 degrees Fahrenheit (26 degrees Celsius) required a field length of almost 7,000 feet, compared to a typical required runway length of around 4,000 feet. Newer Lear 45 XRs with –BR engines perform much better under hot and high conditions. The difference is very noticeable on almost any flight that goes into the flight levels with –BR airplanes encountering a shorter time-to-climb and having the ability to maintain higher airspeeds in the climb. An upgrade to –BR engines is available for older aircraft.

One of the most daunting things about the Lear 45 for new pilots is the door. The main cabin door is a clamshell door in two pieces. The lower half descends to become a stair, while the top the half lifts up. Opening or securing the door requires manipulating two separate handles and a latch. While the process seems confusing at first, it quickly becomes second nature.

From a pilot’s perspective, the Lear 45 is a joy to fly. Controls are somewhat heavy without a hydraulic boost, but the airplane is solid. On takeoff, acceleration is normally quick both on the ground and in the early stages of the climb. There is no tiller for control on the ground. Taxi steering is accomplished by rudder pedals as in a light Cessna or Piper.

Avionics are primarily Honeywell Primus Epic with a four screen setup. There are two primary flight displays (PFDs), an EICAS (engine instrument and crew alerting system) screen, and a multifunction display (MFD). The PFDs place the information of the traditional “six pack” instruments, as well as some navigation information, on one screen for each pilot. The EICAS gives a digital representation of engine and system instruments. The MFD normally shows a map screen, but can be used to show PFD or EICAS information in the event of a screen failure. Additionally, both the MFD and the EICAS can show individual pages with information on specific systems such as fuel, pressurization or hydraulics.

Typical for a 20 year old airplane, the avionics suite looks somewhat primitive when compared to the Garmin display in a Cirrus. The newer Lear 75, which has replaced the Lear 45 in production, has replaced the Primus system with Garmin G5000 displays and FMS.

An experienced pilot will quickly notice a peculiar thing about the Lear 45 panel. Even though the EICAS includes the ability to receive CAS messages about system abnormalities, the panel also includes an older-style panel of warning lights. This panel, located in the center of the cockpit above the MFD, duplicates red warning CAS messages. While not readily apparent to the new pilot, the function of this crew warning panel (CWP) is to provide the crew with warning notifications in the event of a total electrical failure in which the display screens are turned off to save battery power.

The real chink in the armor of the avionics system is the Universal UNS-1Ew FMS. The UNS-1 is vastly different from other FMS’s in logic, which can make the transition difficult. The introduction of more and more RNAV arrivals and departures shows the weakness of the Universal. The RNAV arrivals that I frequently fly into Houston contain numerous crossing restrictions where the airplane has to be within a window of about 3,000 feet. Most FMS’s compute a flight path that will put the airplane through the middle of the window and smooth out the descent. In contrast, the Universal defaults to the lowest allowable altitude at each fix. This often translates into steep descents over a short distance. Descending earlier often means using more fuel and a rougher ride for passengers.

Two other quirks of the Lear 45 are repeated in the new Lear 75. First, the APU is limited to ground operation only in both aircraft, which means that it is unusable inflight in a generator or engine failure or for pressurization or climate control. Some early Lear 45s were actually delivered without APUs at all. Second, the spoilers cannot be used with flaps extended. This requires extra planning for some descents and “slam dunk” approaches.

Landing the Lear 45 is a breeze. The airplane handles well, even in a crosswind. The short wingspan and tail-mounted engines mean that pilots can use the same wing-low crosswind technique that is common in light piston airplanes. Trailing link landing gear makes for soft touchdowns. The Lear 45’s reference speed (Vref) for approaches is in the 120 knot range, but its excellent brakes and thrust reversers make stopping easy.

Total fuel capacity is 6,062 pounds (904 gallons). There are two wing tanks and a fuselage tank, the “trunk,” which is located aft of the cabin. Fuel planning can estimated at 1,800 pounds for the first hour, 1,200 pounds for each hour at normal cruise and 1,000 pounds for the last hour with the descent. This would place normal endurance at about four hours with reserves. Maximum range, depending on winds, is approximately 1,500 nautical miles with reserves.

Except for the shortest flights, the Lear 45 is normally operated at 40-41,000 feet. This altitude put the airplane above most airline traffic and allows frequent direct routings. It also gives efficient fuel flows, typically around 600-650 pounds per side per hour. Operating in the low 40s also allows the airplane to maintain a fast cruise, often bumping against the redline of 0.81 mach.

The Lear 40 is a shorter variant of the Lear 45. The Lear 40 is two feet shorter and carries about 700 pounds less fuel, which leads to a somewhat shorter range. The Lear 40, and the follow on Lear 70, are intended as short-range business jets for a small number of passengers.

With the collapse in business jet prices since the onset of the Great Recession, there are many good deals on used Lear 45s. The airplane’s performance and comfort will make sure that the 45 is a staple of corporate flight departments for years to come.

 

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Pilot’s rules of thumb

Aviation is as much art as science. In many aspects of aviation, math is needed to precisely fly the airplane. Few pilots want to constantly do calculations with an E-6B flight computer or handheld calculator. Fortunately there is an easier way. Over the years, many rules of thumb have been developed to help pilots fly with more precision, but without the hassle. Here are a few that I frequently use flying jets. Many can be used in piston airplanes as well.

One simple rule of thumb is how to smoothly level off from a climb or descent. When changing altitudes, lead the level off by 10 percent of the vertical speed. If the airplane is climbing at 500 feet per minute, start the level off 50 feet before the altitude is reached to avoid an overshoot or undershoot. If the thought of percentages is daunting, just drop the last zero from the rate of climb.

Similarly, a good rule of thumb for planning a cruising altitude is to use 10 percent of the trip length, multiplied by a thousand. If the flight is 200 miles, an efficient cruising altitude would be 20,000 feet. Obviously, the service ceiling of the airplane becomes a limiting factor as well. No matter how long the trip, a Cessna 172 is not likely to climb into the flight levels (18,000-60,000 feet).

It can be helpful to know how fast your airplane is traveling in nautical miles per minute to determine how quickly you will arrive at a fix. To determine your speed in miles per minute, simply divide the speed in knots by 60 minutes per hour. Some commonly used speeds in jets are 200 knots (3.3 nautical miles per minute) and 250 knots (4.1 miles per minute). A piston single that flies at 120 knots is also traveling at two miles per minute.

The figure above can be used in the formula, distance = rate x time, to determine the time to a fix. Time would be equivalent to distance divided by rate so the piston airplane traveling at 120 knots would take 50 minutes to fly to a fix 100 miles away (100 miles / 2 miles per minute). A jet flying at 250 knots would cover the same ground in about 25 minutes. (To make the calculation even simpler, round 4.1 miles per minute to four. The answer using 4.1 is 24.39 minutes. Twenty-five is close enough for government – or pilot – work.)

Descent planning is a common math problem in airplanes. In modern airplanes, the flight computer (FMS) can be programmed to initiate a descent, but it never hurts to double-check the computer. The first step in the process is to determine how much altitude the airplane will need to lose. In my Lear 45, we commonly cruise at FL400 (40,000 feet). If we were planning to descend into a sea level airport such as our home base at Houston Hobby, we would need to lose 40,000 feet. For airports at higher elevations, (such as Aspen, Colorado, field elevation 7,820 feet), we would need to plan on losing about 32,000 feet (40,000 – 8,000). Airport elevations are recorded in heights above mean sea level (MSL) and can be found on charts or websites such as Globalair.com’s airport directory.

One you have determined how much altitude to lose, divide that number by 300 to determine how far out to begin a descent in order to maintain a typical three degree glide path. This means that the airplane would be descending about 300 feet per nautical mile. To descend into Aspen, we would want to start 106 miles from our destination (32,000/300). To make the calculation easier, you can drop the last two zeros from both numbers (320/3). The longer descent into Houston would require 133 miles.

Now that we know how far out to start the descent, we need to know what rate of descent will yield a three degree glide path. This number varies with groundspeed, which in turn is affected by the winds aloft. The simple way to determine a three degree rate of descent is to multiply the groundspeed (typically read directly from cockpit instruments) in knots by 5. For example, if the airplane has a groundspeed of 450 knots, the descent rate must be 2,250 feet per minute (FPM) to maintain a three degree glide path.

Because ILS (instrument landing system) approaches are also based on a three degree glide path, this rule of thumb can also be used to determine what rate of descent will keep the airplane on the ILS glideslope. If you plan to fly the approach at 100 knots, you should plan to descend at about 500 FPM.

Since official weather reports and ATIS broadcasts give temperatures in Celsius, another useful rule of thumb helps to convert Celsius temperatures to the more familiar Fahrenheit temperatures for briefing passengers. Start with the Celsius temperature from the ATIS, 34 degrees today in Midland, Texas where I am writing this, and double it (34 x 2 = 68). Next, subtract 10 percent of the result (68 – 7 = 61). The final step is to add 32 to the result of the second step (61 + 32 = 93 degrees Fahrenheit). With a little practice, this conversion can be done easily in your head.

When considering fuel performance, jet pilots generally think in terms of weight rather than gallons. This can be confusing because most airport fuel trucks pump fuel by the gallon. There is a rule of thumb to help pilots quickly determine how much fuel to order so that they don’t buy too much or – worse yet – not enough.

To start the planning, two pieces of information are needed: the fuel required for the trip and how much is already on board the airplane. A one hour flight in the Lear 45 can be expected to require approximately 1,700 pounds of jet fuel. (This number is obtained from aircraft performance data and flight planning sources available online). If the airplane already has 1,000 pounds on board, we need to buy at least 700 pounds of fuel to complete the flight.

 

Don’t stop there though. We don’t want to land with no fuel left in the tanks!

The FARs (federal aviation regulations) and company procedures specify that pilots must carry reserve fuel. A typical fuel reserve for the Lear 45 is 1,500 to 2,000 pounds. We should also plan for APU (auxiliary power unit) fuel usage of about 100 pounds. Therefore, the total fuel needed is 3,800 pounds (1,700 + 2,000 + 100). We would need to purchase 2,800 pounds since we already have 1,000 on board.

 

To convert jet fuel weight to gallons, divide by 6.7 pounds per gallon. This means that we would need to order 418 gallons from the fuel truck. A quick and dirty rule of thumb is that 150 gallons of jet fuel is approximately 1,000 pounds. This method can be used to check your math or for a quick estimate.

One last rule of thumb is that no rule of thumb that goes unused will be remembered. Practice using rules of thumbs to crosscheck the automation on every flight in order to keep yourself sharp.

Read the full article on Aviation Examiner

Things you might see on a jet (not counting gremlins on the wing)

Everyone is familiar with the basic parts of an airplane. Wings, tail and fuselage are easily recognizable as are propellers and jet engines. A modern jet aircraft contains many other parts that are not so well known.

Flaps

Flaps are a moveable section on the rear of the wing that are used for both takeoff and landing. They droop down to change the shape of the wing. This allows the airplane to fly slower without approaching its stall speed. Flaps can be found on many small general aviation aircraft as well as the largest transport airplanes.

Underside of the flaps showing the runners which guide them into place. Flaps can be moved to several different positions. Landings are usually made with full flaps and takeoffs are made with a partial flap setting.

Slats

Slats are similar to flaps, but are found on the leading edge of the wing. They are typically found only on larger high performance jet aircraft. Like flaps, slats allow the airplane to fly slower without stalling. They are used primarily for takeoff and landing and are retracted during cruise flight.

Forward view of the slats. The slats run along the leading edge of the wing and are normally deployed for takeoff and landing. The inboard section of the wing is not movable.

This is a view of the underside of the deployed slat. The slat can be heated with air from the engines to prevent ice buildup. This is accomplished through the duct in the foreground.

Winglets

Winglets are curved up devices on the wingtips of many new jet aircraft. They reduce drag by helping to reduce the turbulent air left as the wing generates lift. Winglets also have the effect of adding length to the wing without requiring additional strengthening. This additional lift translates into fuel savings and longer flight ranges.

Static wicks

Static wicks are protruding wire-like devices that stick out from the trailing edge of the wing. They help to dissipate the static electricity that builds up on an airplane as it flies. The wicks also help to protect the airplane from the electricity of a lightning strike.

Spoilers and speed brakes

Spoilers and speed brakes are rectangular plates on the upper surface of the wing. As their name suggests, they spoil the lift being produced by the wing. Spoilers are used to slow the airplane quickly and can be deployed both in the air and on the ground.

Pitot tubes

A pitot tube provides the airplane’s instruments with information that allows the plane’s airspeed to be calculated. The tube takes a sample of the ram air pressure and compares it to the static pressure of undisturbed air. The difference is the plane’s speed through the air.

Pitot tubes can be mounted on the fuselage or the wing, but on most jet aircraft they are mounted on the nose section of the fuselage. Most jets have three pitot tubes, one for each air data system (one for each pilot plus a standby).

AOA and Temperature probes

Other probes on the airplane include sensors for angle of attack and temperature. The upper sensor is the angle of attack probe, which determines the difference between the where the wing is pointed and the air moving over the wing. This is important because exceeding the critical angle of attack causes the wing to stall or stop producing lift.

Temperature probes are used to determine the outside air temperature. Temperature is used by the air data computers to determine speeds and performance. It also helps the pilots to determine when it is necessary to activate the airplane’s anti-ice systems.

 

Originally published on Examiner.com:

 

http://www.examiner.com/list/things-you-might-see-on-a-jet?cid=db_articles

Alternative energy for aviation

As high oil prices cut into airline profits, companies and governments are researching alternatives to traditional oil-based jet fuels for aviation. The quest for synthetic aviation fuels goes back to World War II when Nazi Germany’s lack of resources led it to develop processes to convert coal into gasoline.

More recently, the U.S. military has been working toward synthetic fuels as a means of protecting its ability to operate in the event of an interruption of oil supplies. In 2006, the Air Force operated a B-52 Stratofortress using a 50/50 blend of JP-8 jet fuel and a natural gas based synthetic fuel according to the Sohbet Karbuz blog. In 2012, the Air Force flew an A-10 Thunderbolt on Alcohol-to-Jet fuel (ATJ), which is derived from cellulose from wood or plants according to Oil Price.com.

National Defense magazine says that the Navy is taking a different strategy. Where the Air Force is a consumer of alternative fuel technology from existing companies, the Navy has provided seed funding to try to spur the domestic biofuels industry. The Navy has certified several of its aircraft, including the F-18 Hornet, the MH-60 Seahawk, and the MV-22 Osprey to operate on a 50/50 blend of JP-5 and hydrotreated renewable fuel (HRF) according to the Congressional Research Service.

"Eventually, it is possible that aircraft will see JP-8 consisting of all these alternatives," Air Force Certification Division chief Jeff Braun told Oil Price.com. "You won't be able to determine the difference and you won't care, because all perform as JP-8."

Currently, the big difference is in the cost. The ATJ fuel that the Air Force purchased in 2012 cost $59 per gallon according to Reuters. At the same time, traditional jet fuel cost $3.60 per gallon.

NASA is also researching alternative aviation fuels. Using a DC-8 at NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Center in California, the space agency has tested fuels based on coal and natural gas.

There has been a movement toward alternative fuel in private industry as well. Much of the private interest in alternative fuels may stem from the European Union’s attempt to impose a carbon tax on aircraft flying to and from Europe. Consequently, airlines are more interested in biofuels than in fuels derived from coal or natural gas.

In 2006, CAAFI, the Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative, was formed by governmental groups and trade associations to help develop alternative jet fuels. In 2011, Boeing and Aeromexico operated the first transatlantic flight to use biofuels. The flight from Mexico City to Madrid was on a 777-200ER powered by a mixture of 70 percent jet fuel and 30 percent combination jet fuel and oil from the Jatropha Curcas, an oilseed plant native to Mexico. In 2012, Airbus and China Petroleum and Chemical Corporation (Sinopec) entered into an agreement to create a biofuel for the Chinese market. Several other airlines have used biofuel mixtures on flights as well.

Piston engine aircraft face a different fuel challenge. Piston airplanes are typically powered by 100 low lead avgas. Lead is a gasoline additive that boosts octane ratings of the fuel. Leaded gasoline was banned for automobile use in the United States in 1986 because it was a public health hazard. Low lead fuel is still being used in light airplanes, however.

The most likely fuel to replace 100LL is diesel. Although diesel fuel does not address concerns about the availability and environmental impact of petroleum-based fuels, it does provide a proven replacement for leaded avgas. A number of engine manufacturers have already certified diesel aircraft engines and Cessna is even offering a diesel version of its 182 Turbo Skylane.

Others have more radical solutions. In July 2012, electric vehicle pioneer Chip Yates set a speed record for electric aircraft. Flying a Long-ESA, a modified Long-EZ, Yates became the first person to fly an electric airplane faster than 200 miles per hour. Ironically, the flight, which reached a speed of 202.6 mph, ended prematurely when a “dead cell killed propulsion” and forced Yates to make a dead stick landing. The report in Wired does not indicate the normal endurance of the Long-ESA.

Another aircraft doesn’t use fuel at all. Bertrand Piccard plans to fly his airplane, the Solar Impulse, around the fuel using only solar power. The Solar Impulse has flown during the day and at night and has already set five world records including absolute height (30,300 feet), duration (26 hours, 10 minutes, 19 seconds) and free distance (693.5 miles). At an average flying speed of 43 mph, the Solar Impulse is noticeably slower than Chip Yates’ Long-ESA.

At present, alternative forms of energy to power airplanes are more costly than oil, less efficient, or both. If oil prices continue to rise, however, today’s research in nontraditional fuels or sources of energy may result in new technologies that are more cost effective.

Originally published on Examiner.com:
http://www.examiner.com/article/alternative-energy-for-aviation?cid=db_articles

What to expect in turbine training

As airline hiring begins to ramp up, many pilots will be going to class on a turbine airplane for the first time. Training on a jet or turboprop airplane is unlike the previous flight school experiences that most pilots have had in their piston-engine general aviation careers.

Prospective turbine pilots might go to training at an airline’s training center or, if they will be flying a corporate airplane, at a commercial flight training facility such as Flight Safety International or SimCom. Airline new hires can expect to be in training for about two months before they have the chance to fly an airplane. Students at commercial training centers can cut the time to two to three weeks, depending on which airplane they will be flying. Even though this may seem like a long time, the massive amount of information that the student must learn within a few weeks has caused turbine training to be likened to drinking from a fire hose.

Airline training generally starts with indoctrination or “indoc” classes. Indoc is an introduction to the company and its corporate culture. These classes also include topics that are common to all of the airline’s fleets such as company operating rules and standard procedures. How to fill out weight-and-balance forms, do performance calculations, and read dispatch releases, are subjects that are often covered in indoc. Other regulatory information such as company hazardous materials (“haz mat”) and security policies may also be discussed.

After indoc, the class will split up into groups assigned to different airplanes for systems training. Commercial training classes begin with this phase of training. In systems training, the students will learn about the inner workings of their new airplane. Turbine airplanes are incredibly complex and have a variety of interrelated systems. Students can expect to cover general information about the aircraft and engines as well as in-depth studies of the hydraulic, pneumatic, fuel, and pressurization systems.

The systems class also includes training on how to recognize and handle malfunctions. This is commonly accomplished through identifying the failure and accomplishing the appropriate checklist. Systems training will teach the pilots how the failure affects the flight and how and why to deal with it.

Some problems, such as fires or engine failures, require immediate action. Typically, these types of problems are associated with memory items, short emergency checklists that must be committed to memory. The pilot first accomplishes the memory item and then continues to the appropriate checklist. Turbine students can get ahead of their training by memorizing these memory items before they go to class.

Aircraft limitations should also be committed to memory before going to class. The limitations are rules for the airplane that cannot be violated. Limitations include speed limits for aircraft operation and for extending the flaps and landing gear as well as maximum operating altitudes. Engine starter limits, such as how many start attempts are allowed, for the engines and APU (auxiliary power unit) are also common limitations. Not all of the limitations will make sense at first, but as the systems class progresses the reasoning behind the rules becomes apparent.

At the end of the systems class, the students will take a written test. In most cases, the test is multiple choice and features questions that have been covered during the class. There might also be questions about the memory items and limitations.

After successfully completing the systems training, the turbine students move to simulator training. The best preparation for “the sim” is to become familiar with the cockpit layout and “flows” and “callouts.” Students can become familiar with the cockpit though the use of cockpit posters that are normally issued with their study materials. If students know where switches and controls for different systems are located in the cockpit, flying the simulator is much easier.

Flows are brief lists of items to accomplish from memory in a defined order at different phases of flight. Typically, a pilot executes a flow and then follows up with a checklist to ensure that no items have been missed. There are usually flows for engine start, after start, taxi, before takeoff, after takeoff, and after landing. When students practice these flows using their cockpit posters, it helps them to build a muscle memory that will aid them in the cockpit.

Callouts are the scripted lines of each pilot for different phases of flight. Like lines in a play, each pilot has lines that must be said verbatim and at the appropriate time. No ad-libbing is allowed. By memorizing and practicing these lines in advance, the student can concentrate on the job of flying the simulator and not struggling to remember what to say.

For some airplanes, sim training actually starts in a wooden mockup of the cockpit. These mockups allow students to practice flows in a low stress environment and to become more familiar with switch placement. Instructors may also walk students through a typical flight profile with their checklists in these mockups.

Next, the students move to the simulator, a large box on moving legs that contains a reproduction of the aircraft’s cockpit. Computer screens replicate the outside view in great detail while the legs move to give the pilots the feel of a flying airplane.

Sim training starts with normal operations to let the pilots get the feel of the airplane and become more familiar with the cockpit and checklists. The first sessions will cover territory that is familiar to the student from other airplanes. They will learn to take off and land as well as practicing stalls and steep power turns, maneuvers that the students have performed since their earliest days as flight students.

The training quickly moves into the meat of the course, emergency procedures that cannot be safely or efficiently performed in a real jet. There are rejected takeoffs in which the pilot aborts a takeoff and stops on the runway. There are missed approaches where the pilot flies an instrument approach to minimums and “goes around” without landing. The students practice emergency descents to simulate a cabin depressurization at high altitude. However, the signature maneuver of turbine training is the dreaded “V1 cut.”

V1 is defined as takeoff decision speed. In essence, once the aircraft reaches V1, which is computed for each takeoff, the decision is made to continue even if a problem arises because there is insufficient runway remaining to safely stop. Therefore the V1 cut, simulating the failure of an engine at V1, represents the worst case scenario for a turbine pilot. At V1, the aircraft is slow and still must accelerate to a safe takeoff speed. This is defined as Vr, rotation speed, the speed at which it is safe for the pilot to pull back on the control wheel and allow the airplane to leave the runway. Compounding the problem of speed is the fact that an engine failure makes the aircraft hard to control. Since the engines are mounted off center, either on the wings or tail, the operating engine will push the aircraft to one side unless the pilot takes action.

The basic procedure for handling a V1 cut is the same in most airplanes. The pilot uses the rudder to maintain directional control on the runway while allowing the aircraft to continue to accelerate. When a safe takeoff speed is reached, the pilot allows the plane to fly and climbs out at V2, the turbine equivalent of Vyse, the best single-engine rate of climb speed. At a safe altitude, the pilot levels off and continues the acceleration. When a safe flying speed is reached, the pilots retract the flaps used in the takeoff and run the appropriate checklists. Pilots will practice in-flight engine restarts as well as landing with an engine inoperative. Turbine students will get plenty of practice at V1 cuts.

A few other miscellaneous maneuvers round out simulator training. Students will practice landing the airplane without flaps. If the company allows its pilots to circle-to-land from an instrument approach, this maneuver will also be practiced in the sim. Students may also do a LOFT (line oriented flight training) in which they practice a typical flight from start to finish… without engine failures.

The culmination of the entire training process is the checkride. The checkride is composed of an oral exam and a flight test. The oral exam can include anything covered in the training so far, from indoc to systems to flight maneuvers. It is almost certain to include the memory items and limitations that the student memorized earlier.

The flight test is conducted in the simulator and covers most of the maneuvers learned earlier. The flight test normally begins with stalls, steep turns and “unusual attitudes,” recoveries from extremely high or low pitch attitudes and steep banks. It will include practice precision and non-precision approaches with one and two engines. There will be missed approaches, rejected takeoffs, and, of course, the dreaded V1 cut.

After successful completion of the checkride, the student will finally get to fly a real airplane. The first flight that the recent training graduate makes will be with a load of paying passengers on his IOE (initial operating experience). The new turbine pilot will fly with a Check Airman for a predetermined time (often about 25 flight hours) before being released to fly with other line pilots.

Turbine training represents a large commitment in both time and effort for pilots, but it opens the door to a new world of high performance aviation for pilots who can complete it. The training can be made easier if the student has a good foundation of basic aviation skills and knowledge before the first day of class. The best preparation for the training is to study hard and memorize limitations, callouts, flows and memory items early.

Originally published on Examiner.com:

http://www.examiner.com/article/what-to-expect-jet-aircraft-training

Citation Ten makes Cessna fastest once again

Cessna Aircraft Corporation announced this week that its new Citation Ten will be the world’s fastest civil aircraft. After the retirement of the Concorde, Cessna’s Citation X was the fastest civil airplane with a maximum Mach number of 0.92 until Gulfstream unveiled its new G650 business jet. The G650 boasted a maximum Mach of 0.925. In an August 24 press release, Cessna revealed that the new Citation Ten will have a maximum Mach of 0.935.

A speed of Mach 0.935 means that the Citation Ten will be capable of traveling at 93.5 percent of the speed of sound. This is equivalent to almost 700 miles per hour (1,126 kilometers per hour).

Scott Ernest, Cessna President and CEO, said, “As our founder Clyde Cessna said, ‘speed is the only reason for flying,’ so at Cessna we design, engineer, manufacture and fly the fastest civil aircraft in the world – not for us, but for our customers so they can work faster, more efficiently and get the job done.”

Cessna also notes that in addition to an increase in speed over the old Citation X, the new Ten will also have increased payload capacity and range. The Ten will have a range of 3,245 nautical miles (3,734 statute miles or 6,009 kilometers), an increase of almost 200 miles over the X. Payload is also slated to increase by about 200 pounds (90 kilograms).

As a part of the celebration surrounding Cessna’s return to preeminence among fast jets, the company also announced that it will have a presence on all four race cars that are part of the Chip Ganassi Racing Team. Ganassi Racing operates a Citation X according to Professional Pilot magazine.

In the press release, Ganassi says, “My teams compete in nearly 70 races a year and I try to make it to as many as I can.” He continues, “The races might be on the same weekend and sometimes even on the same day and thousands of miles apart. So like any business owner, time is one of my most valuable assets. This airplane shrinks the map for me and has become a vital piece of my business allowing me to spend more time at the track and with my teams. You couldn’t put a value on how important it is to my business.”

The Citation Ten is currently undergoing flight testing and certification. It first flew in January 2012 at Cessna’s factory in Wichita, Kan. According to Cessna, first deliveries of the Ten are scheduled for January 2013.

Disclosure:  The author is employed as a pilot by a division of Cessna and Textron.

Read this article on Examiner.com:

http://www.examiner.com/article/cessna-reclaims-fastest-aircraft-title-with-citation-ten

Delta refinery may mean competitive advantage

In a move that is the first of its kind for an airline, Atlanta-based Delta Air Lines is buying its own refinery in an effort to control fuel costs. Along with labor and aircraft, jet fuel is one the highest cost factors for airlines. High fuel costs over the past few months have put pressure on airline profits and led to reduced schedules and higher fares.

The refinery purchased by Delta is outside Philadelphia and was previously owned by Phillips 66 according to the Atlanta Business Chronicle. A subsidiary of Delta, Monroe Energy LLC, will pay $150 million for the plant and then spend another $100 million for retooling to maximize production of jet fuel. Delta expects production to start in the third quarter of 2012 and forecasts a savings of $100 million this year and $300 million per year thereafter. This means that the investment could pay for itself in less than two years. According to the Wall St. Journal, the deal will supply 80 percent of Delta’s fuel needs in the United States. The refinery had been slated to close if no buyer was found.

The purchase of the refinery is no panacea for fuel costs. A major factor in the cost of fuel is the cost of crude oil. This price is largely fixed by OPEC and varies with changes in demand, interruptions in supply, and international tensions. Delta will still have to purchase oil at market prices to refine. The Wall St. Journal notes that Delta has contracted with BP to provide oil for the refinery for three years.

The company may also find problems with distribution of the jet fuel once it is produced since Delta needs fuel at airports around the country. If the fuel is produced in Philadelphia, it must be transported to where the airplanes are, notably to Delta’s hubs in Atlanta, New York, Cincinnati, Minneapolis, Detroit, Memphis and Salt Lake City.

A partial solution to this problem lies in Delta’s deal with BP. When oil is refined, it produces a variety of fuels, not one specific type. Even though Delta is primarily interested in jet fuel, its refinery will also produce other fuels such as gasoline. The Wall St. Journal notes that Delta has agreed to trade these by-products to BP in exchange for jet fuel at other locations. This eliminates the need to transport at least a portion of the jet fuel across the country.

The purchase makes sense from a standpoint of controlling costs, but there are risks as well. Delta has no experience in the oil industry. Running a refinery is radically different from running an airline. However, as noted in the Wall St. Journal, Delta spent $11.7 billion on fuel in 2011. The $150 million purchase represents less than two percent of that total. Given the estimated savings of $300 million per year, the risk is an attractive one.

Cheaper jet fuel may change the economics of many routes that Delta flies. Smaller destinations may become more profitable under the new cost structure. Destinations that saw flights reduced or eliminated as fuel prices rose may see a return of Delta service. Delta’s competitive advantage in fuel costs may translate to lower fares on some routes.

If the move works, other airlines are likely to follow suit in purchasing their own refineries. Delta might even consider additional purchases in other parts of the world given the airline’s role as a major international carrier. Fuel costs are even more expensive in other countries due to higher taxes and labor costs so the potential savings could be even more attractive.

An additional factor for consumers is the question of the impact of the conversion of the Philadelphia refinery on gasoline prices. In the past few months, refinery closures have caused increases in the price of gasoline, sending the price at the pump near its 2008 highs. As the Philadelphia facility retools to produce more jet fuel, it will necessarily produce less gasoline. This may lead to an increase in the price of gas for drivers.

 

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http://www.examiner.com/article/refinery-may-give-delta-air-lines-competitve-advantage